Adam and Eve Essay 3 - 1412 Words

Adam and Eve Marcie Smith REL 250 Paxton Reed November 16, 2008 Adam and Eve The term subordination is used frequently in the context of Trinitarian discussion, and has a clearly defined usage. Theologians of the past have spoken in some sense of the subordination of the Son and the Spirit within the boundaries of orthodoxy. However, how do we define it when it comes to women and the church? The story of Adam and Eve is a great place to start. It brings with it all of the elements of love, respect, partnership, and subordination all rolled together. When I first started to research this paper I was under the misguided assumption that Adam and Eve went down together. As my paper evolved you will see I learned a little bit differently.†¦show more content†¦Feminists argue that women have had to struggle to overcome the patriarchally structured churches. While scholars in ecclesiastical history and related fields have undoubtedly been influenced by the huge developments in both women’s history and gender history in the larger arena of historical scholarship, they have also been influenced by the questions raised by feminist theologians about the viability of women remaining within the Churches and the outworking of Christian doctrine in the women’s lives. â€Å"Origins have therefore become important to some feminist scholars, especially those of faith, in a rather distinctive way, as they have sought to bring to light—and , in some cases, discover—evidence for the ways in which the Christian tradition has in at least some of its roots an equal place for women† (Shaw, 2004). The place of women—and, indeed, men—in the early Churches is a historical subject which is seen to have relevance to individuals and the Churches today: while Churches are still debating the validity of the ordination of women, and even the extent to which laywomen can participate in the worship and ministry of the Church, it is not possible to shy away from this. One of the great strengths of feminist scholarship has been to show that no scholar works from a neutral starting-point: the selection of topic and the evidence on which historians choose to focus are shaped by their presuppositions. Ecclesiastical historians, influenced by theirShow MoreRelatedThe Lineage of Sin and Death867 Words   |  4 PagesIn this essay, I will be explaining the nature of sin and how it entered the world. First of all, let us define sin. According to dictionary.com, sin is transgression or violation of divine or supreme law, a willful or deliberate violation of some religious or moral principle, any reprehensible or regrettable action, behavior, lapse etc.; great fault or offense. My definition of sin is disobedience toward Yahweh, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Sin entered the world through Adam in theRead MoreReflection On God s The Lord God Planted A Garden Essay1063 Words   |  5 PagesIn this essay, I will take the position that God waited to create Eve in order to properly prepare Adam to be a husband/leader. Being the very first being created on earth and having no experience in how to live, God would need to teach Adam the necessary steps for a productive and successful life. Especially since there was a fallen being roaming around, God needed Adam’s full attention to establish a relationship with him, teach him the importance of guarding something precious, and that obeyingRead MoreThe Sin Of The Original Sin961 Words   |  4 Pagesconsists of sinners begging the Lord for forgiveness—thanks to Adam and Eve. How different would the world be if Adam and Eve did not bit the forbidden fruit? Would such sin still exist today? â€Å"If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just will forgive us our sins and purify u s from all unrighteousness† (1 John 1:9 King James Version). It is important to keep in mind that no human being is perfect, only God is perfect. In this essay, readers will get the opportunity to learn about the OriginalRead MoreThe Quranic And Biblical Story Of Adam And Eve1527 Words   |  7 PagesKody Ayers 3/11/2015 The Quranic and Biblical Story of Adam and Eve Christianity and Islam are similar in many beliefs and have many intersecting histories. These beliefs include major points such as a God and ancient prophets. However, Islam and Christianity vary significantly between their religious written works. These works are the Bible and the Qur’an. The compilation of both in their respective religions however do point back to God. God being the omnipotent deity in which these religionsRead MoreThe Hebrew Bible s Allure And Perseverance928 Words   |  4 Pagesunclear. One such gap is God’s motivation behind his response to Adam and Eve eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Despite God telling Adam that he will die if he eats the fruits of the tree of knowledge of good and evil (King James Version, Gen. 2.17), eating the fruit did not cause Adam and Eve to die; instead, God allowed them to live and cast them out of the garden of Eden (Gen. 3; 24). Why then did God tell Adam that he will die if he consu mes the fruit from that tree ifRead MoreAdam And Nimrod Are Not Just Characters From Dante s Work1259 Words   |  6 PagesAdam and Nimrod are not just characters from Dante’s work. They both have origins in Christianity. Genesis 3 is about Adam’s sin, the first sin; disobeying the Lord caused the fall of man. Genesis 11 is about Nimrod’s sin. Nimrod was the first ruler â€Å"in the land of Shinar† (Gen 10.10). Men, migrating east, settled in Shinar and planned to construct a tower so tall, that it would reach the sky because this would â€Å"make a name for [themselves]† (Gen. 11.4). When the Lord noticed this tower, he â€Å"scatteredRead MoreViews On The Historical Adam Essay1061 Words   |  5 PagesFour views on the historical Adam consists of four prominent biblical scholars, who together, provided there understanding of scripture to a project that shed light on the figure identified in Genesis 1 as Adam. The four contributors to this book are: Dr. Denis Lamoureux, Dr. John Walton, Dr. C. John Collins, and Dr. William Barrick. Four Views on the Historical Adam visibly outlines four key views on the Genesis figure Adam held by evangelicals. The content provided is theologically consistent inRead MoreThe Battle Of The Sexes1239 Words   |  5 Pagesa woman from the rib he had taken out of the man, and he brought her to the man† (Genesis 2:22) this quote and this context has been interpreted wrongly by many in the comings over the years and throughout history. People interpret Eve as being less in value than Adam because she was taken from his ribs after he was first created. This interpretation of being lesser in value than the male species has been a struggle throughout the duration of history. This may have been a cause to a misunderstandingRead MoreHow I Read Literature Like A Professor Essay1141 Words   |  5 PagesBrylan Beard Mrs. Mary Smith Ap Literature 20 September 2017 How to Read Literature like a Professor Essay This essay will be about the analyzing of literary devices that are discussed in this book. The professor in the book thoroughly describes these devices and the allusions and symbols that are involved in literature over the centuries. I will be discussing the specifics of the allusions and symbols of the bible and the Christ like figures in literature. The first device I will be describingRead MoreClash Between God And Science Essay1091 Words   |  5 Pagesof when Science and biblical text do not agree is the ideas of Adam and Eve vs. evolution, the flooding of the earth, and finally scientific law vs. miracles performed by Jesus Christ. The first instance of when biblical text and science do not agree starts in the beginning with the first man and woman. In Genesis 2:4-3:24, God introduces the first man and woman in the world. Their names where Adam and Eve. The book of Genesis 2:4-3:24 states â€Å"The  Lord  God formed  a man[c]  from the dust  of the ground  and

Argumentative Essay On Drug Addiction - 799 Words

The first six years of my life, I would spend my fathers visitations with my dads twin brother, known to me as Uncle Josh. Uncle Josh helped raise me and loved me as much as his own, until he met the two most soul-sucking monsters, a woman who introduced him to methamphetamine.The past ten years have consisted of my uncle down spiraling due to his addiction of methamphetamine. As of now, he is fourteen months clean due to his arrest last June. Because of his methamphetamine addiction, he is now facing thirty years in prison rather than going to rehab to beat his addiction. Today’s society would rather overpopulate our prisons with addicts, who need help, rather than sending them to rehab. Addicts are people fighting their demons†¦show more content†¦Dalton Demartino, 18, of Shelbyville, IN had past away due to an overdosed. Dalton had been fighting his addiction and even self-willingly signed himself into rehab to get the help he needed, but his disease ultimately wo n. In America there is a huge controversy about whether addiction is a disease or not. Unfortunately, many people argue it’s not a disease. A disease is a disorder of structure and function. Many people don’t realize the struggle addicts go through everyday. If an addict is going through withdrawal, they’re nauseous, they get chills, sweats, weight loss, abdominal cramps, etc. Someone with cancer has nausea, sweats and chills, weight loss, etc. By no means am I stating that someone with cancer is the same as an addict, I’m simply stating they have similar symptoms. Many things categorize as symptoms of having a disease, addicts encounter when trying to beat an addiction because it is a disease. Just because you cannot physically see the disease doesn’t mean it isn’t there. For example, depression is a disease that is mental and no one argues that it is or isn’t a disease. On the contrary, some Americans believe that addicts deserve to sit in jail rather than go to rehab, just because they broke the law consuming drugs. While this may be true, addicts are fighting a disease that alters how their minds processes priorities. Legal consequences, like jail time,Show MoreRelatedDrug Addiction Argumentative Essay977 Words   |  4 PagesYates 7-22-2012 Argumentative Essay: Addiction is a choice Alcohol and illicit drug consumption are all too prevalent today in high schools, colleges, and all across the globe. Students seeking to fit in or forget about the repetitiveness of school and homework have a tendency to experiment. Drug addiction is known by the scientific community to be a psychological condition based on excessive, obsessive, and compulsive actions. Once that regular user crosses the line into addiction their only concernRead MoreArgumentative Essay On Drug Addiction1067 Words   |  5 PagesAddiction is a plight on the world’s population that many know of but refuse to acknowledge. It’s a topic often ignored in society due to belief that addicts are the scum of humankind. Many organizations have popped up to fix these issues by creating rehab facilities and methods to assist addicts in abandoning their addictions and revitalizing their life. It’s a common thought that these organizations, and even everyday citizens of society, believe i n focusing on the addict and on their path throughRead MoreCriminal Psychology660 Words   |  3 PagesArgumentative Essay: â€Å"Violent video games directly correlate to violence in schools† Do violence video games actually affect children? What is the correlation between virtual games and violence at school? Most of the nowadays teenage activities and spending free-time resolves around technology. Not all the games are violent, but they all becoming more realistic. Some of the games are designed to learn something, some games develop abilities of fast reading, fast typing, driving a carRead MoreEssay about The Beef with TV770 Words   |  4 Pages Television: Our Nations Drug of Choice nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Television is our era’s escape from what we now consider a chaotic struggle of life. I think we as a people feel life can be solved in an hour long Monday night special and that exact attitude is our society’s problem today. Frankly we are a group of cowards who do not take the bull by the horns; rather we retreat to routine episode line up that we can supposedly relate to. Ladies and gentlemen we need to break free like Plato’sRead Morethree arguments Essay741 Words   |  3 Pagescritical argument analysis essay, focuses on three professional essays and how these authors construct their arguments using opinion and evidence. There are many different ways in which authors can construct their arguments. In the highly controversial topic of legalizing marijuana I found three very different styles of arguments in which the authors backed up their opinions with facts. In my reading of these arguments each writer had there own style. The first essay by Stephen B. Duke, CannabisRead MoreArgumentive Essay1121 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ Argumentative Essay Legalization of Marijuana Ashley Bassett Eng. 1301 Instructor: Pam Hesser pg.1 The recreational use of Marijuana should be legalized. According to the New York Times The social costs of the marijuana laws are vast. There were 658,000 arrests for marijuana possession in 2012, according to F.B.I. Figures compared with 256,000 for cocaine, heroin and their derivatives. Even worse, the result is racist, falling disproportionately on youngRead MoreArgumentative Essay : The Legalization Of Marijuana1293 Words   |  6 PagesArgumentative Essay: The Legalization of Marijuana in the United States Should we legalize marijuana? That is an excellent question. First, we must explore the history of Cannabis. Cannabis was introduced to the United States in the 1600’s, first encouraged by the federal government for domestic hemp production, cannabis soon became a required crop for farmers to grow. Hemp was recognized for its medical benefits and was the main fiber used in industrial textiles. Marijuana thrived until the earlyRead MoreUse Of Performance Enhancing Drugs Should Be Banned1961 Words   |  8 PagesThe controversial question is whether the use of Performance Enhancing Drugs (PED) in sports should be banned or not. Professional sports are popular in most countries. Major franchises are dealing with the issue of PED being used by the athletes who are paid to perform in the sport on the belief that they are naturally a raw talent. This controversial essay will side with the banning of PED use in any type of sport activity, whether it is at professional or amateur le vel. Both sides of this issueRead MoreNegative Influence of Virtual Reality3058 Words   |  13 Pageshave a significant negative impact on human being’s psychology and health. Virtual Reality can lead to physical, emotional and social damages for its user or even addiction comparable with drugs. For example there are games, such as ‘Second Life’ (a virtual imaginary world similar to the real world) that may lead to the user’s strong addiction to it and there is a high probability of the user cutting himself/herself off from the real society. ‘The overpowering stimulation and excitement that VirtualRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pagesown conclusion, then its your responsibility to give them reasons they can appreciate. Lets examine that last remark. A conclusion backed up by one or more reasons in any order is called an argument, even when the reasoner is not being argumentative or disagreeable. The word â€Å"argument† is a technical term we will be using frequently in this course. Being logical means, among other things, that you should give an argument to support your conclusion if you expect other people to accept it

Mobility - Migration and Sustainability Linguistic Diversity of Austr

Question: Discuss about the Effect of Mobility, Migration and Sustainability In Linguistic Diversity of Australia. Answer: Focus of the article In the article Mobility, migration and sustainability: re-figuring languages in diversity by K Heugh, mainly focuses on the changes in the global migratory patterns. The different factors those effects on these patterns includes globalization, industrialization, linguistic discrimination, anxiety about the potential economic impact due to the migrants etc. In addition to this, author also argued in favor of peaceful co-existence of multiple linguistic communities in the courtiers of European Union and particularly in Australia. Moreover, author also investigated the reason behind theoretical end of the multiculturalism in Australia due to the restructuring of labor party (Blommaert 2013). At the end of the article author also provided arguments that supports the theory refiguring of mobile communities in the different countries for better sustainability. Understanding of key ideas In the chosen article author tried to explore the effect of the mobility, migration of communities to the other countries and effect of this migrants on the sustainability of socio economic structure of the those countries (Scollon, Scollon and Jones 2011). The patterns of migration of different communities are affected by the level of poverty, housing, health services and education of the couuntry. The narratives of orientalism, racism, ethnicity, linguistic diversity etc. are broadly discussed in the article. Moreover, author also described that after the attack of 9/11 at the twin towers of USA, the migrants from Sudan and Afghanistan are considered as the threat to the established livelihood of the Australian lifestyles (Heugh 2013). The reason identified by the author was the socio economic and political differences between the migrants and the natives of Australia. Author also explored the need of the new paradigms that moves beyond the economic, social, urban and educational panning. These paradigms are useful in holding the multi dimensional interest of the migrants and natives of a country. Author also explained the impact of global economic crisis on the countries like US and Europe (Blommaert 2013). This caused for wide spread anxiety for the people of this countries. This anxiety provoked them to take stand against the migrants of different countries inside the concerned countries. Author also explained the term the term Super diversity coined by Vertovec (2007), in the light of four factors that are social anthropology, linguistic, history and economics. Summarization of the main ideas In the whole article author discussed and explained different ideas that are related to the migration, sustainability and linguistic diversity (Scollon, Scollon and Jones 2011). The ideas include the integration of the two cultures (the social culture of the migrants and the culture of the destination country), affiliation of native languages used by the immigrants, reluctance of Australian society in the process of acceptance of cultures of migrants. In addition to this author of this article described the threats by the culture and linguistic of the migrants to the stability of the established communities (Heugh 2013). Moreover, balance between productive assertion and social cohesion is also discussed in the article. The way diversity in the society provides opportunities, democratic utopia and equality to any county is also discussed in the article. Outlining the different examples To describe the migration patterns, effect of different factors on this pattern, the benefits and pit falls of integrating both cultures to increase the linguistic diversities; author selected and explained different examples from the perspective of Australian society. From the year 2004, when Theo van Gog was assassinated by a person who was identified as a person belonging to Islamic community, to the year 2011 when a racist extremist caused massacre in Oslo city; all this incidents affected the acceptance of the migrants to different countries that are included in the European union (Stroud and Heugh 2004). The riots in UK organized by migrated youths, discriminatory attack to the Somali traders by South Africans due to the fear of increased economic competition are other examples that are responsible for the reluctance of different countries to accept the immigrants to their country and increase the multilingual diversity (Vertovec 2007). Author also questioned the sense of placing a monolingual teacher (teacher who only speaks in English) in the environment where only 10 % of the students can speak in English. In the article author discussed the issue of migration by two perspectives contemporary theorization perspective and narrative accounts perspective (Scollon, Scollon and Jones 2011). To discuss these perspectives, author selected the issue of asylum seekers from Afghanistan and Southern Sudan. Even though the Australia embraced the multiculturalism and linguistic diversity from a long period, on the contrary, in the present context due to the different implications this theory of multiculturalism is considered as outdated and fragile. In this complicated situations too, Australian government has given recognition to the language like Hazaraghi and Dinka as officially recognized languages (Heugh 2013). This step taken by the government has given linguistic citizenship to the migrated people of Afghanistan and Southern Sudan. How it helps the reader in understanding the intercultural communication Today the world is considered as a global village, where the event in one region affects the other regions. In the same way when people find it difficult to live in the circumstances of a country, then they try to migrate to another part of the world. In the new place they have to integrate with the culture of destination country with their own (Heugh 2013). In case of intercultural communication the primary obstacle is geographical boundaries and the difference between the cultures of different individuals. The affect of education system of the country in which the immigrants resides can be helpful in the intercultural communication. The author of the article also pointed out that when an immigrant has to live in a country that is linguistically and culturally different from its own (Scollon Scollon and Jones 2011). Therefore to overcome these problems they try to adapt and integrate with the culture of the country where they have taken asylum. References Blommaert, J., 2013. Citizenship, language, and superdiversity: Towards complexity.Journal of Language, Identity Education,12(3), pp.193-196. Heugh, K., 2013. Mobility, migration and sustainability: re-figuring languages in diversity.International Journal of the Sociology of Language,2013(222), pp.5-32. Leudar, I., Marsland, V. and Nekvapil, J., 2004. On membership categorization:us,themand doing violencein political discourse.Discourse Society,15(2-3), pp.243-266. Ram, M., Engaging with Super-Diversity: New Migrant Businesses and the Research-Policy Nexus. Scollon, R., Scollon, S.W. and Jones, R.H., 2011.Intercultural communication: A discourse approach. John Wiley Sons Skutnabb-Kangas, T., 2000.Linguistic Genocide in Education--or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights?. Routledge. Stroud, C. and Heugh, K., 2004.Language rights and linguistic citizenship. na. Vertovec, S., 2007. Super-diversity and its implications.Ethnic and racial studies,30(6), pp.1024-1054.

Technological Advancement and the Effect on the Ecosystem free essay sample

While technology can be a powerful force to improve our standard of living, it comes at a cost. New technological goods are often burdensome to the environment. This damage may come from acquiring the resources to produce new technology, or from toxic byproducts of technological production. It can consist of environmentally harmful waste produced by the technology itself, or the castoff remains of obsolete technology. Some categories of technology, such as electronics, require resources that are difficult to acquire without harming the environment. For example, the advanced batteries in hybrid cars are composed of nickel and rare-earth metals. Mining these materials is a significant source of harmful emissions, including solvent vapors, sulfuric acid, and coal dust. Acid-laden water discharges kill all plant and animal life around nearby waterways and have sickened and killed nearby rural residents.This mining largely takes place in China, which has admitted that it sells the rare-earths cheaply because it sacrifices environmental safety standards in the mining process. We will write a custom essay sample on Technological Advancement and the Effect on the Ecosystem or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Similar batteries exist in personal consumer electronics, hard drives, fuel cells, wind turbines, polishing powders and catalytic converters. Advances in farming technology have led to cheaper and more diverse food options, but technological advances that improve production, such as pesticides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers, can also harm the environment. Modern fertilizers increase yields, but they linger in the local environment, damaging soil and groundwater and creating dead zones in lakes and oceans. Pesticides may kill off the pests that affect current crops, but also kills beneficial insects and amphibians, and can build up a population of pesticide-resistant insects that will damage future yields. The use of technology can ease our lives, but it can also damage the environment. The most obvious example of technology usage producing harmful by-products is the greenhouse gases and other toxic emissions from transportation technology.Refrigeration technology produces hazardous gases that can damage the ozone layer and produce toxic liquid effluents that make their way into drainage ways and poison water animals . Even appliances like the clothes washer create microplastic-laden wastewater that winds up in the ocean, where it can be eaten by birds and sea animals. New advances in technology often render old technology useless. Discarding outdated or worn out technological goods is a significant source of environmental damage. For example, contemporary compact fluorescent light bulbs contain mercury, which is toxic to both humans and animals. Old thermometers also contained mercury, as do some batteries manufactured prior to the mid-1990s. Discarded vehicles left in place for long periods eventually leak toxic fluids into the ground, where they kill plants, animals and soil microbes. Rainfall can wash pollutants from the discarded technology into waterways, spreading poisons into natural systems and the human food supply.

Religion and Belief Essays

Religion and Belief Essays Religion and Belief Essay Religion and Belief Essay Festivals project- Write about each of the festivals mentioned, explaining in detail the reasons for the festivals.The Athenians of the 5th century bc regularly took part in religious festivals. They had these for a number of reasons* To honour the gods* To relax* To feast* To enjoy themselves* To experience a sense of community* To enjoy drama and athletics* To give all classes the chance to participate* To recognise various stages in life and to show other states their wealth and power.The SkiraThis festival was held to honour Demeter at the threshing time and was restricted to women. Women threw into holes in the ground various offerings, especially piglets, which were symbols and sacred to Demeter. They also threw in snakes and male genital organs made from dough. (This had no correlation with the actual ploughing of the peasants.The ThesmorphiaThis was also exclusively for women at the sowing time; usually 3 months after the Skira. This time the women Bak ers retrieved the decayed remains of the Skira and placed them on altars. In order that the women remained pure for 3 days before the festival, they ate garlic to discourage their husbands advances. The remains were supposed to promote fertility in the fields as well as the women. Only rich men might be involved as they had to pay for the festival.(They basically had this festival because they believed that it promoted fertility in women and in the field).The HaloaHeld at Eleusis. This was a womens festival to Demeter, Persephone and Dionysus which took place in mid-winter at the time of the pruning of the vines and wine tasting. Magistrates prepared a feast for the women before leaving them to the festivities which included eating phallus-shaped pastries and drinking to much wine. The result seems to have been obscene language, strange behaviour (women carried around models of male and female genitalia) and promiscuity. The reasons for this festival seem to be basically for women t o feast and enjoy themselves.Rural Dionysia/The city DionysiaThis was a procession where a huge phallus was carried and a hymn was sung to Phales, the personification of phallus. This festival was held to promote fertility. It as a chance for women to break away from their everyday routine and it was a licensed and controllable outlet for the pent-up hostilities and frustrations of suppressed classes of the population. The city Dionysia was a competition of dramatic and lyric poetry performed in the theatre of the Dionysus on the south slope of the acropolis. This festival provided a showcase for the artistic talents of Athens and it demonstrated her public supremacy: at this time the allies had to hand over their tribute and it was displayed in the theatre. There was also a parade off the sons of those who were killed in the war and orphans of the state.AnthesteriaA flower festival in early spring when jars of newly fermented wine were opened and dedicated to Dionysus. A three-day festival, it ended with a day of evil omen when pots of porridge were offered to the dead. On that day ghosts were supposed to wander from their graves and so, to keep them at bay, people chewed buckthorn, a laxative, and smeared their doors with pitch. Perhaps two festivals had merged to produce this somewhat strange combination. This festival honoured the deadThargeliaThis festival was held to honour the god Apollo, to whom the first fruits were dedicated in the form of a pot of boiled vegetables while a human scrapegoat was beaten and driven out of the city.OschophoriaThis festival took its name from the oschoi or branches laden with grapes carried by two noble youths. This festival gave all classes the chance to participate and to experience a sense of community.GenesiaOriginally this was celebrated on the birthday of a deceased individual but it became a national day of remembrance for the dead.TaphaiThis was the annual ceremony for the war dead.HyacinthiaIn mythology, Hyacinth ia was a favourite of Apollo and also Zephyrus who directed the wind so that Apollos discus struck Hyacinthus head, killing him. The festival lasted three days. On day one there were sacrifices to the dead and to hyacinthus. On days two and three joyful processions and contests in honour of Apollo were held.(This was held to make sacrifices to the dead and to honour Apollo).ApatouriaThis was celebrated by the phratries . On the third and final day, new born infants, youths of 16 and newly married wives were officially registered in the phratries. Also included was a day of hair shearing. This festival was intended to celebrate stages in peoples life, for people to relax and for people to enjoy themselves.

Battle of Wake Island in World War II

Battle of Wake Island in World War II The Battle of Wake Island was fought from December 8-23, 1941, during the opening days of World War II (1939-1945). A tiny atoll in the central Pacific Ocean, Wake Island was annexed by the United States in 1899. Located between Midway and Guam, the island was not permanently settled until 1935 when Pan American Airways built a town and hotel to service their trans-Pacific China Clipper flights. Consisting of three small islets, Wake, Peale, and Wilkes, Wake Island was to the north of the Japanese-held Marshall Islands and east of Guam. As tensions with Japan rose in the late 1930s, the US Navy began efforts to fortify the island. Work on an airfield and defensive positions began in January 1941. The following month, as part of Executive Order 8682, the Wake Island Naval Defensive Sea Area was created which limited maritime traffic around the island to US military vessels and those approved by the Secretary of the Navy. An accompanying Wake Island Naval Airspace Reservation was also established over the atoll. Additionally, six 5 guns, which had previously been mounted on USS Texas (BB-35), and 12 3 anti-aircraft guns were shipped to Wake Island to bolster the atolls defenses. The Marines Prepare While work progressed, the 400 men of the 1st Marine Defense Battalion arrived on August 19, led by Major James P.S. Devereux. On November 28, Commander Winfield S. Cunningham, a naval aviator, arrived to assume overall command of the islands garrison. These forces joined the 1,221 workers from the Morrison-Knudsen Corporation which were completing the islands facilities and the Pan American staff which included 45 Chamorros (Micronesians from Guam). By early December the airfield was operational, though not complete. The islands radar equipment remained at Pearl Harbor and protective revetments had not been built to protect aircraft from aerial attack. Though the guns had been emplaced, only one director was available for the anti-aircraft batteries. On December 4, twelve F4F Wildcats from VMF-211 arrived on the island after being carried west by USS Enterprise (CV-6). Commanded by Major Paul A. Putnam, the squadron was only on Wake Island for four days before the war began. Forces Commanders United States Commander Winfield S. CunninghamMajor James P.S. Devereux527 men12 F4F Wildcats Japan Rear Admiral Sadamichi Kajioka2,500 men3 light cruisers, 6 destroyers, 2 patrol boats, 2 transports, and 2 carriers (second landing attempt) The Japanese Attack Begins Due to the islands strategic location, the Japanese made provisions to attack and seize Wake as part of their opening moves against the United States. On December 8, as Japanese aircraft were attacking Pearl Harbor (Wake Island is on the other side of the International Date Line), 36 Mitsubishi G3M medium bombers departed the Marshall Islands for Wake Island. Alerted to the Pearl Harbor attack at 6:50 AM and lacking radar, Cunningham ordered four Wildcats to begin patrolling the skies around the island. Flying in poor visibility, the pilots failed to spot the inbound Japanese bombers. Striking the island, the Japanese managed to destroy eight of VMF-211s Wildcats on the ground as well as inflicted damage on the airfield and Pam Am facilities. Among the casualties were 23 killed and 11 wounded from VMF-211 including many of the squadrons mechanics. After the raid, the non-Chamorro Pan American employees were evacuated from Wake Island aboard the Martin 130 Philippine Clipper which had survived the attack. A Stiff Defense Retiring with no losses, the Japanese aircraft returned the next day. This raid targeted Wake Islands infrastructure and resulted in the destruction of the hospital and Pan Americans aviation facilities. Attacking the bombers, VMF-211s four remaining fighters succeeded in downing two Japanese planes. As the air battle raged, Rear Admiral Sadamichi Kajioka departed Roi in the Marshall Islands with a small invasion fleet on December 9. On the 10th, Japanese planes attacked targets in Wilkes and detonated a supply of dynamite which destroyed the ammunition for the islands guns. Arriving off Wake Island on December 11, Kajioka ordered his ships forward to land 450 Special Naval Landing Force troops. Under the guidance of Devereux, Marine gunners held their fire until the Japanese were within range of Wakes 5 coastal defense guns. Opening fire, his gunners succeeded in sinking the destroyer Hayate and badly damaging Kajiokas flagship, the light cruiser Yubari. Under heavy fire, Kajioka elected to withdraw out of range. Counterattacking, VMF-211s four remaining aircraft succeeded in sinking the destroyer Kisaragi when a bomb landed in the ships depth charge racks. Captain Henry T. Elrod  posthumously  received the Medal of Honor for his part in the vessels destruction. Calls for Help While the Japanese regrouped, Cunningham and Devereux called for aid from Hawaii. Stymied in his attempts to take the island, Kajioka remained nearby and directed additional air raids against the defenses. In addition, he was reinforced by additional ships, including the carriers Soryu and Hiryu which were diverted south from the retiring Pearl Harbor attack force. While Kajioka planned his next move, Vice Admiral William S. Pye, the Acting Commander-in-Chief of the US Pacific Fleet, directed Rear Admirals Frank J. Fletcher  and Wilson Brown to take a relief force to Wake. Centered on the carrier USS Saratoga (CV-3) Fletchers force carried additional troops and aircraft for the beleaguered garrison. Moving slowly, the relief force was recalled by Pye on December 22 after he learned that two Japanese carriers were operating in the area. That same day, VMF-211 lost two aircraft. On December 23, with the carrier providing air cover, Kajioka again moved forward. Following a preliminary bombardment, the Japanese landed on the island. Though Patrol Boat No. 32 and Patrol Boat No. 33 were lost in the fighting, by dawn over 1,000 men had come ashore. Final Hours Pushed out of the southern arm of the island, American forces mounted a tenacious defense despite being outnumbered two-to-one. Fighting through the morning, Cunningham and Devereux were forced to surrender the island that afternoon. During their fifteen-day defense, the garrison at Wake Island sank four Japanese warships and severely damaged a fifth. In addition, as many as 21 Japanese aircraft were downed along with a total of around 820 killed and approximately 300 wounded. American losses numbered 12 aircraft, 119 killed, and 50 wounded. Aftermath Of those who surrendered, 368 were Marines, 60 US Navy, 5 US Army, and 1,104 civilian contractors. As the Japanese occupied Wake, the majority of the prisoners were transported from the island, though 98 were kept as forced laborers. While American forces never attempted to re-capture the island during the war, a submarine blockade was imposed which starved the defenders. On October 5, 1943, aircraft from  USS  Yorktown (CV-10) struck the island. Fearing an imminent invasion, the garrison commander, Rear Admiral Shigematsu Sakaibara, ordered the execution of the remaining prisoners. This was carried out on the northern end of the island on October 7, though one prisoner escaped and carved  98 US PW 5-10-43  on a large rock near the killed POWs mass grave. This prisoner was subsequently re-captured and personally executed by Sakaibara. The island was re-occupied by American forces on September 4, 1945, shortly after the wars end. Sakaibara was later convicted of war crimes for his actions on Wake Island and hung on June 18, 1947.

Internet usage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Internet usage - Essay Example Today, the negative impacts of increasing internet use reduce the scope of internet to a notable extent. This paper will perform a cause and effect analysis of the internet usage. Effects of internet usage According to Wilder, one of the most noticeable effects of increased internet usage is that it promotes socialization, which is a dynamic learning process whereby individuals and organizations change over time (204). Since internet influences cultural transitions, this global network significantly contributes to the pace of socialization. Since internet allows users to interact with people from various cultures, individuals obtain the opportunity to learn more about different cultural practices, norms, and beliefs. However, it is often observed that people use internet to abuse other cultures emotionally rather than to adopt from the good aspects of those cultures. Hence, sometimes internet promotes a negative socialization process due to its unfair usage. Evidently, high rate of i nternet usage has greatly benefited people to be independent as it helps people to attain knowledge without any external assistance. Today, professors do not need to provide teaching notes to students since there is a bundle of relevant information available in the internet. Although this condition may improve students’ academic efficiency, overdependence on internet would sometimes result in adverse academic results. For instance, every piece of information provided in the internet may not be correct or accurate as every person is free to post his writings or personal views on the internet. Hence, wrong or misleading information would often cause troubles to an individual’s academic career. Another positive benefit of internet is that it provides employment to millions of people. Due to the increased internet usage, the scope of internet based jobs is still increasing and this situation gives hope to a global economy struggling from the recent global recession. At som e particular levels, the negative effects of internet outweigh the internet’s positive effects. To illustrate, cyber-terrorism significantly diminishes the scope of internet. The internet based terrorist activities such as deliberate disruption of computer networks cause serious consequences in the cyber world. Professional hacker teams use computer viruses to obtain unauthorized access to an organization’s or a country’s confidential data. Under such circumstances, the victim may sustain serious damages or losses which in turn would outweigh the anticipated benefits from those data. In addition, studies point out that porn websites and other violence promoting factors in internet result in social as well as cultural disintegration. Finally, the growing popularity of social networking websites like Facebook causes time wastage, and hence the overall productivity declines. As Lukoff points out, â€Å"exposing children and youth to video games and the internet of ten does not engage their major learning style that is through their sensorimotor system, and thus have negative effects on their cognitive development† Lukoff, 104). Causes of internet usage While discussing the dramatically increasing internet browsing data, it can be undoubtedly stated that need of information is the most important factor boosting worldwide internet usage. It is clear that internet is a potential source for every kind of information under the sun. The internet meets the information needs of each and every category of people,

Static vs. Dynamic XML queries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Static vs. Dynamic XML queries - Essay Example It enables data transfer from virtual or real documents in the wide world web to or from databases providing an interaction that is much needed. A static XML query is concerned with the retrieval of information and updating the node contents. It does not involve any other changes to the structure of the document (OLTEANU 2004). A dynamic XML query not only retrieves information and updates the content of the document in question; it also inserts new nodes while at the same time deleting the existing nodes often resulting in a change in the document structure. There has been a surge in the need for XML updates thanks to the growing preference for XML as a data exchange format. A labeling scheme supporting solely static XML queries is not enough for XML to become a general standard for data representation and exchange; a labeling scheme that effectively supports dynamic XML trees is also necessary (BEHRENDS 2007). However, dynamic queries are problematic and difficult to handle because they are require the updating of the labels of many nodes simultaneously with the updating of the original XML document to preserve the efficiency of the labeling scheme. GROPPE, J. (2008). Speeding up XML querying satisfiability test & containment test of XPath queries in the presence of XML schema definitions. LuÃÅ'ˆbeck, University, Diss.,

The ultimate nightmare Essay Example for Free

The ultimate nightmare Essay I lay down and waited for the soothing blanket of sleep shroud me. A few seconds later the anticipated blackness of slumber settled in†¦ Suddenly, the deafening noise of the alarm clock woke me up with a startling jolt. It seemed as though I had fallen asleep mere seconds ago and as I groggily looked around something did not seem right. The room looked the same as it did before I went to sleep. In the bright orange light that seemed to come from hells keep itself, shown through the flimsy curtains from the eerily noiseless street behind our house I could see that nothing was amiss. Nothing that I could notice straight away that is. As I got up from my bed, I saw that my sister was not in hers. I looked around once more, as the feeling of peculiar alarm and angst worked from the top of my head to the tips of my toes. I was at once perturbed and shaken as I saw that the room was clean, severely clean. There was naught on the tables, or in the wardrobe, not dust nor a shadow of the things that had been there and as I turned to look at the alarm clock, I was only more agitated to find the side table to be glimmeringly spotless. As the twisted black feeling of fear grew, I knew I had to go through the entire house. Having no idea of what time it was; except that it was dark; sinister as any night in a horror movie outside, I went through each and every room in our house only to find all of them stripped bare, like a newborn baby, from the ceiling to the floor. It was as though it had taken hours for me to do that, for me to find all my families things, my family, itself to have, disappeared like they had never existed in the first place. The fear that had been lit now consumed me like a wild fire. That this dream like situation that seemed to go on for hours only fed it. The fact that I now knew this was not reality but a horrifying nightmare did not seem any less daunting than if a dragon breathing fire had been placed in front of me. For this was my ultimate nightmare, to be left alone with not a thing in the world but worse than that that there was no one for me to go to. I could not do anything but wait in the spine-tingling prison like dream, wait for someone to wake me up, when, the shrill voice of the alarm sought me out,  again†¦

Personal Narrative: Harsh Criticism of my Writing Essay -- Narrative E

There are certain moments in my writing process, even more than twenty years later, that I can still imagine hearing that sharply critical voice striking a deep and lasting blow as the journalism assignment replete with bloody red ink landed on my desk. â€Å"This is all wrong,† were the words my high school journalism teacher stabbed me with as she passed down the aisle pausing only long enough for me to catch a whiff of her nicotine breath. At the very same moment my stomach muscle knotted, my face burned as if with fever, and those four words echoed out of control over and over again in my ears. Notoriously late for class due to her love of smoking cigarettes in the teacher’s lounge (in those days smoking was allowed in school buildings), Ms. B’s entrance into the class on this particular day was no exception. With a flurry of authority, arrogance, and impatience, she appeared before me-the subservient and humble student. Her disdain for my writing was obvious in her written comments on the returned assignment. But it was the spoken word about my writing that intimidated and humiliated me, even to this very day when I allow myself to think back on the incident. Hearing that my work was â€Å"all wrong† in the presence of other students was the worst embarrassment I could imagine as a shy and overly sensitive teenager. I wanted to crawl under my desk and hide. I managed to fight back tears until my retreat to the lavatory at the end of the period. Any confidence I had in my writing died that day. From that moment on my dreams of being a writer were severely compromised. Ms. B had taken advantage of her position of power over my writing. Whether this was intentional on her part or just a case of insensitivity or carelessness has no bear... ...well, it is difficult for me to do so. Perhaps it is his never-failing encouragement and my appreciation of his teaching methods that won’t allow me to take the role of an English teacher when reading his work. It has been my experience that young student writers can be very vulnerable to harsh criticism from a teacher or person in authority. And in my own case, that criticism didn’t disappear at the end of the semester but in fact, stayed with me for many years. I still have to push that ghost of criticism out of my head when I sometimes have difficulty with my writing. For the most part, the wounds from the red pen have healed and the scaring has been greatly reduced. Since the process of writing is difficult enough without discouraging words from teachers, it is imperative that harsh criticism be chased out of the writing classroom for the good of all students.

Role of Media

â€Å"Electronic Media† are those communication mediums which are based on electronic or electromechanical means of production and most often distinguished from print media. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the general public worldwide include radio, sound recordings, television, video recording and streaming internet content† . It denotes, â€Å"the main means of communicating with large number of people, especially television, radio, internet and satellite†. The electronic media have four basic functions; to inform, entertain, educate and influence the public opinion.The 20th century can be termed as the century of communication. The main mean of mass communication grew in succession as the century unfolded. Motion pictures arrived on scene in the first decade of this century. Regular radio broadcasts started in 1920s. Television entered the arena in 1940s, followed by cable television in 1950s, and satellite television in 1970s. Lastly the perso nal computer gave access to Internet in 1980s. It transformed the interconnected computer networks through World Wide Web by the 1990s. Types of  Ã‚   electronic mediaRadio. In Pakistan like other developing countries, radio is the major source of information and entertainment due to its reach to the far flung areas and being relatively economical. Broadcasts carry news, analyses, commentaries and advertisements. This medium, however, is losing attraction in the public. Television. TV due to its potentials to offer a greater variety than other elements of electronic media has become the strongest form of media to perform all four functions, i. e. information, education, influence and entertainment. Internet.Internet is the latest addition into the elements of medium of electronic communication. It is swiftly bringing a historic shift in the dynamics and profile of the global information sector. The medium also provides instant access to the largest data bases and archives of infor mation around the world. 1. 6   The media and the ground realities The most critical obligation of electronic media is to act as the custodian of the facts. There are certain realities and electronic media’s mindset and peculiarities, which to some extent are universal.The electronic media is a business, a billion dollar industry and thus its primary motive remains to earn money and not harmonize the society. Due to intense competition in the field of electronic media industry, media has to be competitive; to be â€Å"Exclusive and First†. The electronic media often looks for controversy, sensationalism and negative news to make headlines. In some cases the electronic  Ã‚   media feels that it has the right to interpret what is good or bad for society using its own standards.The electronic Media was primarily and popularly used by our previous regimes as tool of self propaganda, the quality of news poor, unreliable and un-imaginative presentation of events and stor ies, ultimately losing the confidence of general public. Introduction of Satellite TV, Cable and Private Channels and Dish widened the scope of awareness of people. The Government of Pakistan realized the sensitivity and potential of private electronic media which could not be avoided through State controlled TV only.The governmental policies regarding electronic media   took a different direction, to regulate this sector. 1. 7  Pakistan electronic media regulatory authority The objective of PEMRA was to regulate the electronic media i. e. Radio and TV. This was necessitated by the decision to allow a large number of private TV and radio channels. The Ordinance also gives a Code of Conduct for media broadcasters/ cable TV operators. â€Å"This Regulatory Body was established under the PEMRA Ordinance 2002, having the following goals in mind†Ã‚   i)  Improve the standards of information, education and entertainment. i)  Enlarge the choice available to the people of Pak istan in the media for news, current affairs, religious knowledge, art, culture, science, technology, economic development, social sector concerns, music, sports, drama and other subjects of public and national interest. iii)  Facilitate the devolution of responsibility and power to the grass roots by improving the access of the people to mass media at the local and community level. iv)  Ensure accountability, transparency and good governance by optimization of the free flow of information. . SECTION-2 FAULT LINES IN NATIONAL COHESION AND INTEGRATION . 1  What is National Integration? The concept of National Integration is subject to a wide range of interpretations. However, two definitions which catch the essential spirit of the concept include, â€Å"The creation of a National Political System which supersedes or incorporates all the regional sub-cultures† , and the creation of a â€Å"Common national consciousness, a common national consensus and a common national i dentity† . These two definitions appear adequate for working purposes as they underline both the political as well as the socio-cultural ingredients of the process of integration.National cohesion refers to the bonds or â€Å"glue† that binds members of society, community or other groups together. The most obvious bonds are ideological, ethnic, linguistic, religious, cultural and historic. However, the homogeneity of a nation is no guarantee of successfully bonding together as a cohesive whole. â€Å"The extent of the threat posed to the integrity of a state by the multiplicity of languages, races, religions etc. , depends on a variety of factors but there are basically two requisites (conflict of ideology and economic decline) which must be present before a country may be deemed to be faced with a problem of national disunity.    The Pakistani society is in transition, and it faces challenges but still the national interest is to make Pakistan as a unity-in-diversit y and there is an ever-growing need to develop a harmonious society. â€Å"The balance sheet of social changes in Pakistani society over the past half century has both cost and benefits. Pakistani society has split into class-cum-lifestyle segments. Its social institutions do not dovetail into each other; instead fissures of institutional lag run through them.Its cohesiveness has given way to the fragmentation and the erosion of value and moral consensus†. 2. 2  Fault Lines in National Cohesion and Integration in Pakistan Integration or cohesion is an ideal, â€Å"it is not a thing but a process. It is dynamism ruled by an inner necessity, being guided in a direction chosen by itself as a goal or rather a series of goals leading to a certain direction †. National integration and social cohesion is the capacity of a society to ensure the welfare of its all members, minimize disparities and avoid polarization.A cohesive society is mutually supportive community of free individuals, pursuing these common goals by democratic means. National integration and social cohesion is at risk in Pakistan because of many impeding factors, which originate within the country or influenced by external reasons. It may also be a complex outcome of interaction between the country forces and stresses and influences of global scenario. The socio-political factors and socio-economic factors as listed below have contributed to cause fault lines in national cohesion and integration. 2.   Socio-Political Factors Intolerance and near absence of civic responsibility, now manifested in our society is indeed the outcome of a hierarchical structure and social barriers, further and enforced by policy approaches in the 80s. Politicizing of religion and language is one major source of fractionalization. â€Å"Presently, the culture and society of Pakistan are in the grip of an unprecedented upheaval. In the post 9/11 world, the political, religious, and the social dynamics in Pakistan have been under major internal transformation and intense international scrutiny.Ethnic and sectarian violence which ravaged the country for the last two decades has sharply polarized the society. Various Islamic religious groups jostle violently for power. Religious faith, usually a matter of personal redemption, is flagrantly flaunted and a stunning lack of tolerance for difference increasingly defines Pakistani society. † Constitutional Crisis. The non-agreement and lack of consensus on various revisions and amendments in 1973 constitution remained a contentious issue among the federating units since long.The delayed process of reconciliation and agreement, on this only document to govern the state is a serious threat to national cohesion and integration. Provincialism. Imbedded strides of sub national identities engraved into the fabric of the provinces pose an existential threat to national cohesion. This issue is even more pronounced in case of smaller provinces like Khyber Pukhtunwa and Balochistan. Identity crisis prevailing with in the provinces is tarnishing the very physiology of democracy in essence and in dispensation at National level.There are contradictions between national and provincial interests, particularly in matte relating to language, ethnicity, identity, and power. There are small Political groups and movements agitating for their rights, including Baloch issue. Nevertheless, such provincial or regional sentiments swirl within the national cultural pool. Sectarian Intolerance. The division of society on the basis of sects, tribes, colour and creed gives rise to intolerance towards other sects. The violence on sectarianism basis is on the rise. The religious intolerance and extremism, and over emphasis on religious dentities due to that   Pakistani society is facing continuous challenge of terrorism in the name of religion and belief. Political Process and Direction. The directionless political system rarely delivers to the satisfaction of voters. Various derivations of political process have no regard for national objectives and national interests and efforts for achievement of these goals for the country are hardly visible. The political system as a whole is driven by conflicting vested interests. The political parties lack democratic norms in their rank and file.Leadership Style and Direction. The political leadership as a whole has failed to satisfy the masses. The trust deficit between the leadership and the people has widened, and is increasing with the passage of time. The social and political positions of so-called ruling elites are just a symbol of false pride without much regard for vision and justice. Non-State Actors. Unorganized political parties have increased the influence of non-state actors in national politics, thereby vested interests are perpetuated, at the cost of national interests. Challenges to the Writ of the Government.The manifestation of this divide is the challenge to the writ of the State in FATA and Malakand Division where state infrastructure of governance has been uprooted, the power elite has been eliminated (either by murder or forced migration) new and parallel structures have been created and the application of Constitution is challenged. â€Å"The so-called Islamic fundamentalists have always been influential in the largely poor, illiterate, and rural Pakistan society. These groups represent a variety of power centres based on an array of belief systems from within Islam.Historically, none of these groups have had much success at the ballot box, but with a strong core of ‘true believers’ with blind faith and unflinching allegiance, they have often been able to display enough Street power to disrupt civil life. Since the war of independence in neighbouring Afghanistan in the 1980s, these religious groups have been encouraged and aided by the government of Pakistan and the US State Department. As a result they have ‘flo urished and proliferated under the exhilarating notion of jihad.The border between Afghanistan and Pakistan has been porous for centuries because of the unusual terrain that facilitates traffic and a common tribal ethos that informs the lives of the bordering populace. With the rapid and fearsome Talibanization of Afghanistan and the Mullahisation of Pakistan, the borders for all practical and ideological purposes dissolved, and these processes played a vital role in the fluctuating social ethos of Pakistan. †Ã‚   War against Terrorism. The country is facing various challenges.The multiple threats and constant pressures are very serious since post 9/11 due to Pakistan’s commitment with West for fight against terrorism. This involvement is viewed as being done to oblige the West. The suicidal attacks and drone attacks are the result of this involvement. Feudalism / Tribalism. In Pakistan the feudal and tribal society where rights of human being are violated is a matter o f concern, people are not free to express their desire to govern. In such circumstances the leadership style is power centred and feudal in character, this leadership enjoys respect because of fear, and not because of trust. National and regional culture has, at various times, interwoven and competed with each other. In times when centralization is the ideological thrust, national themes and institutions are in the ascendancy, but when the pendulum swings toward decentralization, regional and ethnic societies and cultures reassert their autonomy. The political ideologies and movements that shift the balance between national and regional social and cultural systems are the markers of Pakistan’s social change. †Ã‚   Role of Madrassa.There is little control of government over madrassas in the country, these madras do pose a threat to the cohesion of the society in Pakistan, if not regulated adequately. . 2. 4. Socio – Economic Factors Socio – Economic dispari ties. The poverty and inflation has caused disparities in the society. The people living below the poverty line have increased in number. The unemployment and low income has caused economic imbalance in the society. The division of society and decline in socio-economic standards have adversely impacted the quality of life. Bad Governance. Undemocratic & non-participatory governance. . The perception of governance leading to good governance is flouted; concepts of transparency and accountability are misleading in Pakistani experience.The accountability is selective and by choice, its aim is not to reform the society of negative practices, but to benefit the fittest and powerful. The people have no faith in the system of governance and accountability. Violation of Human Rights. The human rights violation is on the increase, the weaker segments of the population even do not get the rights given in the constitution and the irony remains ignorance on their part of basic rights bestow ed by the constitution. The perception of women as having a lower status at all levels is the principle barrier in the way of gender equality and is reinforced by customary practises and the laws of the land. Women education, health, labour force participation, mobility, decision making etc, all reflect the unique situation of women in Pakistan. † Personal Security Perception. The constant engagement of population in this war against terrorism has changed its perception of personal security. The people have doubts about the success of governmental policies. Loyalty towards State /individualistic behaviour.The notion of loyalty towards state is blurred, people’s expectation of justice and fair play are shattered, and therefore, their loyalty towards State is also undermined. The individualism has replaced collectivism; the bigger societal group is vanished. The conflicts of values, beliefs, and other sociological imbalances has damaged the national fabric and has caused segmentation on the basis of caste and class   Justice and Rule of law. The justice is uncertain; the rules of game are settled by abuse of power. The respect for justice is linked with status and position of the seeker.The attitude towards Rule of Law is very negative, law breaking is considered as a pride for the powerful. Due to delayed justice people have lost hope in the system to get justice. Violence against Women and minorities  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Many Analysts are in agreement that women’s poor status as well as poverty is rooted in social and cultural organization of society†. The rights of the women are abused, and such abuse is referred to the culture and customs and here- say, this victimization is devoid of any ideological, religious and legal and Constitutional basis.The religious minorities are threatened and do face violence at their religious places, thereby show concern of threat and personal security. â€Å"Empowering women is a challenge, requires changes in the existing class and caste based structure and it needs a focused and active public delivery system to ensure that resources and opportunities earmarked for women reach them† Mistrust in Criminal Justice System. The people do not have trust in criminal justice system, and lack of trust generates uncertainty and confusion in the society. â€Å"In Pakistani society, the udiciary plays a pivotal role in articulating and enforcing rules of conduct for its citizens. The judiciary derives its legitimacy and power from the constitution. † †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ?SECTION-3 ROLE OF ELECTRONIC MEDIA IN PAKISTAN 3. 1  Electronic media’s impact on Pakistani society In Pakistan the electronic media is providing information at a very large scale. It is being recognized as contributing significantly in important national issues. It has a   role in   accountability process . The Ptv is pursuing an agenda of social responsibility there are two main challenges of sustainability of democracy and good governance face by the country.In such a scenario, role of media is to facilitate the democracy. â€Å"The social impact of communication and media has seeped deep into social and cultural institutions, paradoxically reviving traditions as well as introducing new practices. Like other processes, communication and information media are bound up with other socio- economic forces, thus making them a strong current of social change. †Ã‚   The electronic media has created markets resulting in the employment of greater work force in gathering, processing and disseminating information.The electronic media have a vital role to play in the present day world in Pakistan. The independent electronic media can demonstrate better performance to provide good quality information with its wider reach. â€Å"Private channels highlight causes of mis- governance and bring them to the attention of those who are responsible. They can raise public awareness about what the public itself should also do to ensure good governance whether it is correct payment of taxes and bills or issues such as tax avoidance. Such practices should be discouraged and the media has a duty to learn from other countries how this is being done.Private sector media have an enormous educative and mobilizing role to play when it comes to what society do and certainly with respect to highlighting the social responsibility of the media and the citizens. †Ã‚   â€Å"How does Pakistani society hold together despite its ethnic divisions, segmented classes, and fragmented institutions? What are the processes that maintain its social cohesion? This two-part question raises a critical issue about some semblance of functional equilibrium of society. †Ã‚   The electronic media role ive new direction to social behaviour, â€Å"by changing the boundaries of social situations, electronic media do not simply give us quicker or more thorough access to e vents and behaviours. They give us instead, new events and new behaviour. † Following are some of the roles, both Negative and positive being played by electronic media in Pakistan. 3. 2  Positive impact of electronic media The electronic media direct social change and values. The electronic media may be successful in stimulating the change in the tightly held ideas and rigid attitudes to bring desired change.The media can give direction to social change, and positively guide the society towards the desired goals. The electronic media and   Policy Dialogue. The electronic media can greatly facilitate this exercise and help the people and government to discuss the issues concerning society, to fulfil their desires and achieve their respective objectives. In Pakistan, the people frequently need to be taken into confidence for the initiation of new policies and initiatives. The objective discussion on political and policy issues media can generate support of people for polici es of the government..Social problems and media. The social problems of our society revolve around ignorance, traditionalism and backwardness. The Pakistani society is in transition, social and ethnic issues have become hard, it happens in many societies, but need to be averted in tolerance. It is an established fact that blaming circumstances, whether disorders or external factors, for what is happening for Pakistan is not going to do any good for Pakistan’s survival as a dignified an honourable nation. The electronic media can partly address the challenge of societal transformation.The effect of media on national issues. The electronic media has also been highlighting financial irregularities, corrupt practices and inefficiencies of the government functionaries and negative fallouts on the society of the acts of the extremist elements to adopt an appropriate strategy for their eradication. â€Å"The media have a measurable effect on public affairs. In the matter of local, national, economic and social issues, they help to create an informed citizenry by clarifying the complex matters of public affairs which exist at the local and national levels.The formation of public opinion towards the civic problems is generated. †Ã‚   As such the media give the public a better understanding of these issues with which it must deal and influence those who have to resolve these issues. Electronic media communication and information Identification of social problems has always been a difficult job as they fall into a grey area and consequently hard to be known. â€Å"Advances in communication and information dissemination, such as television, videos, Internet, and CDs, have increased the circulation of ideas, symbols, and images across national and regional borders.People have access to new sources of news, facts, and entertainment. These media help rationalize, redirect, or impede changes that are underway through economic and social development. † 3. 3  Negative impact of electronic media Objectivity and Electronic Media. The objectivity of media is becoming increasingly questionable, the coverage of issues of national interest demand care and restraint. The media in Pakistan is devoid of objectivity, and just telecast such incidents that sometime are not factual. â€Å"The very nature of media is subjective and selective, and therefore suppressive.The general electronic media content do cover non-event-centric aspects of life in Pakistan. There is an imbalanced fixation with events, incidents, accidents and statements. † In order to improve their ratings and enhance viewers ship, the tool of sensationalism is used. What is important is to think as to what is being done to own sensibilities and social and moral values. Causing Desperation amongst Nation. These days no news is good news on Pakistani media. Media has taken away the sense of hope from the masses and has made them over sensitive to their surroundings.Commer cialism and Electronic Media. In today’s world, there is a cross commercialization of the electronic media. Commercially driven, ultra-powerful media primarily serves their sponsors rather than the public. Pakistani media is following the saying, ‘We have no obligation to make history. We have no obligation to make art; we have no obligation to make a   positive statement, to make money is our only objective. Electronic Media and Talk Shows   Generally the talk shows do not meet basic tests of responsible journalism; fairness, objectivity, balance and differentiation between fact and speculation.Honest discussion must be ruled by reason, not emotion alone. Most anchors try to impose their own perspective, instead of objectivity. â€Å"However, unfortunately, this role has moved from delineation to distortion. In essence, distortion is in-built into the very nature of media as it is unable to represent totality of given situation. Therefore, media managers in any on going situation in a society should strive to minimize that inherent tendency to distort. †Ã‚  Ã‚   Polarisation of the Society.In some instances, the electronic media is accessed by a small segment of society; due to vested interests this group projects its identity disproportionately. The media coverage of such groups is likely to create a  Ã‚   polarized society. Negative Projection of the Country. All events and happenings in Pakistan are not bad. On the contrary sometime nothing positive is discussed in the electronic media. The projection of crimes and anti- social elements all the time is eroding and diminishing the contours of our true identity across the globe. Pursuance of Foreign Agenda.It is believed that some of Pakistani media has reportedly links with shady foreign characters, are being funded by different foreign elements and their anchors are on their pay rolls and thus are furthering their anti- state agendas. ======================= PREFACE Being participa nt of 92nd   National Management Course   at the National Management College of the National School of Public Policy, Lahore, I am assigned the topic of Individual Research Paper titled, â€Å"Growth and Development of Electronic Media in Pakistan: How it can Enhance National Cohesion and Integration? . The growth of electronic media over past few decades is very rapid in Pakistan. The media can impact public opinion in a significant manner. In Pakistan the national integration and cohesion, is indeed a serious issue, which needs to be analyzed. The media’s extraordinary growth can impact this problem. The media is being considered as a fourth pillar of the state. . In this study a sincere effort has been made in a comprehensive but concise way to analyze the dimensions of â€Å"fault lines† in national cohesion and integration that occurred during the last over 60 years.The role of electronic media to enhance the national cohesion and integration has been analyze d in this study. The same has been analyzed in historical, socio-political, socio-economic, governance and leadership context. From this analysis, a starting point, as I perceive can be made to think various aspects concerning national cohesion and integration. In the end the analysis is concluded and some  Ã‚   recommendations have been made. . I am grateful and deeply indebted to professional guidance extended by Dr.Sikander Hayat, Dean National School of Public Policy, for his encouragement at all stages in carrying out this research and making it possible. I am grateful to Mrs. Rashida Bokhari for her vision and hard work in guiding me on the theme of the paper during the process. She was always critical but professional in her outlook that enabled me to complete this research as per requirements. I am thankful to Prof. Sajjad Naseer and Dr Riffat S. Hussain, for sharing socio political outlook and focused in depth analysis of Pakistani Society. I am also grateful to Ms. Naeem a and her team for the assistance extended for library research.

Impact of Poverty on Children Essay

According to data from UNICEF, a child in the United States is more likely to live in poverty than any other developed nation (American Psychological Association, 2012) Children living in poverty suffer from lack of nutrition. Lack of nutrition can lead to premature birth and/or low birth weight (APA, 2012). Inadequate access to healthy foods can lead to obesity (Dalton, 2007). Lack of food can lead to hunger or food insecurity (APA, 2012). Malnutrition can lead to deficits in cognitive and social development (APA, 2012). Failure to thrive can be a result of under nutrition (APA, 2012). According to the American Psychological Association (2012) poverty can lead to poor academic achievement. Stress connected with living in poverty affects concentration and memory (APA, 2012). Lack of encouragement to promote literacy and reading readiness (Cuthrell, Stapleton, & Ledford, 2010). No exposure to activities such as museums and camps (Cuthrell et al., 2010). Several states with school districts in low-income areas receive much less in state and local funding than other school districts (Hutchinson, 2013). Poverty and lack of insurance affects children’s health. Barrier to children receiving proper vaccinations (Becton, Lee, & Nieman, 2008). Children are a greater risk of behavioral and emotional issues (APA, 2012). Increased risk of asthma, anemia, and pneumonia (APA, 2012). Exposure to lead and other environmental contaminants (APA, 2012). Micro social work Working with families with children to provide services for food and health care. Collaborating with other agencies to provide services such as health departments, community service boards, and mental health service providers. Working with schools to ensure child(ren)’s needs being met. Assisting family with nutritional education and access to healthy foods. Macro social work Work with community to increase support for Head Start and preschool programs for all children. Policy and laws must address the lack availability of services and health insurance for children living in poverty. Advocate for school systems to better educate teachers to deal with children living in poverty – hire teachers who care about student’s achievements (Cuthrell et al., 2010). Encourage school boards to eliminate all sugary foods and drinks from school campuses. Encourage communities to be proactive in assisting families living in poverty with food and educational programs. Work with policy to promote increase in wages and employment opportunities (Fass et al., 2009). Social Constructionist Perspective Children in poverty have a place in society – do not move up in class. Children in poverty have certain characteristics: not intelligent, slow-minded, dirty, obese, wanting hand-outs, criminals. Children in poverty should not aspire to improve their circumstances. Society class structure gives the need for children and families to live in poverty. Poverty is accepted as a norm – need change of thinking. Social Behavior Perspective Children in poverty expect to grow up to live in poverty. Children in poverty thinking is reinforced by their environment. Children in  poverty do not have high expectations or goals. Children living in poverty continue the cycle of the parents and grandparents previously. Conflict Perspective Children in poverty are a non-dominant group. Children in poverty have no voice. Children in poverty are results of social and economic injustice – unequal division of power. Children in poverty affect all facets of society Schools and all children affected by policies such as: No Child Left Behind Act – teaching more to state testing versus academics and knowledge. Children in poverty cost an estimated $500 billion in lost productivity and spending on health care and criminal justice systems (Fass, Dinan, & Aratani, 2009). Children in poverty are more likely to be poor as adults, continuing the cycle increasing chances of chronic poverty ((Fass et al., 2009). The research on children living in poverty reinforces how the environment can and will affect an individual’s situation. Poverty influences a child’s health, education, and future well-being. If a child is not given the same opportunities as other children not living in poverty, the struggle to rise above poverty can be overwhelming. The cycle of poverty will only change when there is an equality of resources. The change starts at the micro level with the individual child and the family receiving services. To break the cycle, the change must be at the macro level with change in policies and laws. Agencies and social workers must give the children living in poverty a voice that can be heard. References American Psychological Association. (2012). Effects of poverty, hunger and homelessness on children and youth. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/print-this.aspx Becton, J. L., Lee, C., & Nieman, L. Z. (2008). The effect of lack of insurance, poverty and paediatrician supply on immunization rates among children 19-35 months of age in the United States. Journal of evaluation in clinical practice3, 14(2), 248-253. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2753.2007.00841.x Cuthrell, K., Stapleton, J., Ledford, C. (2010). Examining the culture of poverty: promising practices. Preventing school failures, 54(2), 104-110. Dalton, S. (2007, January). Our vulnerable children: poor and overweight. Southern Medical Journal. pp. 1-2. Fass, S., Dinan, K. A., & Aratani, Y. (2009, December). Child poverty and intergenerational mobility. National center for Children in Poverty. Retrieved from http://nccp.org/publications/pub_911.html Hutchinson, E. D., (2013). Theoretical perspectives on human behavior. Essentials of human behavior integrating person, environment, and the life course. (pp. 39 – 42). Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications. Compare/Contrast Krystal and Jessica both want to work with immigrants to help integrate them into the schools and society and overcome barriers. My desire to help children in poverty could be viewed as similar as both groups have barriers due to their status. Immigrants and poor people are looked upon as being less of a person. Each group I believe is affected by the conflict perspective. The unequal balance of power and resources prevents immigrants and poor people access to the same opportunities. If there is not a balance or equal opportunity to services and resources, how can immigrants and people living in poverty achieve the successes of those with access? The environment in which immigrants and poor people are exposed to everyday does not meet the basic needs of acceptance and hope. If children are to succeed in the classroom they must be given the tools and support to do so. Things such as food, shelter and language are taken for granted by society when there is not a need. How is a child who cannot understand what a teacher is saying or is being bullied by other children because of their different speech or clothing achieving success in the classroom? How can a child who has not eaten since lunch in school the day before concentrate on what is being taught by the teacher? Society must take responsibility for these  children. Social workers must advocate at all levels: micro and macro – to ensure immigrants and children of poverty are receiving equal access to opportunities available to others. Social workers and society cannot accept poverty as a norm. Social workers and society cannot accept lack of resources and/or funding an excuse to not properly educate children of immigrants.

Mystical Experience as an Expression of the Idealizing Self object Need †Theology Paper

Mystical Experience as an Expression of the Idealizing Self object Need – Theology Paper Free Online Research Papers Mystical Experience as an Expression of the Idealizing Self object Need Theology Paper As the other in the religious conversion is perfect and infallible, the experience of merger achieves the felt quality of perfection rendering the transformed self perfect as well. The merger with God may offer the opportunity for a relationship that circumvents the demands of relationships with separate others who have wishes and needs of their own. (Ullman, 1989, p.147.) Introductory Comments about Religion and Psychology Throughout history human beings have reported experiences interpreted variously as spiritual, transcendent, religious, or mystical. Karen Armstrong (1993) called this an arresting characteristic of the human mind and a fact of life (p. xxi). Rudolph Otto (1923) referred to homo religiosus as a way of describing this uniquely human interest in the divine. Rolland challenged Freud about his omission of this aspect of religious experience in Future of an Illusion (1927). Freuds response was dismissive on two counts: first and most interesting, he had not experienced this oceanic feeling, and secondly, he thought it could be understood as a regressive phenomenon originating in infantile maternal longings. Laski (1961) wrote about the rare joy and feeling of contact with ultimate meaning of transcendent origin in ecstatic experiences. These experiences were not restricted to particular religious triggers. Maslow (1964; 1966) investigated peak experiences of contact with th e holy or sacred, the beauty of nature, and feelings of harmony with the universe. These were not rare and exotic experiences, but rather the pinnacle of his need hierarchy. And most recently, Jeffrey Rubin (1996; 1997) describes non-self-centered subjectivity: . . . a psychological-spiritual phenomenon that is implicated in a range of adaptive contexts . . . It is something many people have experienced, for example, creating art, participating in athletics or religious experiences, or in love. It is characterized by heightened attentiveness, focus, and clarity, attunement to the other as well as to self, non-self-preoccupied exercise of agency, a sense of unity and timelessness, and non-self-annulling immersion in whatever one is doing in the present (1997, p. 80) For the purpose of this chapter, I have chosen to delimit this range of experiences to particular kinds of mystical experiences in which there is an element of what Evelyn Underhill (1912) called the unitive feeling what is psychologically called a merger experience. Ellwood (1999) regards mysticism as an interpretive category and defines it as: . . . experience in a religious context that is immediately or subsequently interpreted by the experiencer as a direct, unmediated encounter with ultimate divine reality. This experience engenders a deep sense of unity and suggests that during the experience the experiencer was living on a level of being other than the ordinary. (p. 39) The attempt to understand mysticism psychologically has a history as long as psychology itself beginning with the French psychopathology tradition, continuing into German studies in psychology of religion, and on to the American psychologists of religion working at the turn of the twentieth century. James Leuba, a member of the Clark school (a program in religious psychology founded by G. Stanley Hall in the late 1800s), was convinced that religious experience lacked a transcendent object and could be explained entirely by psycho-physiological processes. He was perhaps the only American at the time to take such a strict point of view. There were many apologists. Henri Delacroix (1908) thought mystics possess a special aptitude for a rich subconscious life and that the stages of a mystics life represent new and creative existence. While not exactly an apologist, Theodore Flournoy (1903a), Swiss psychologist and friend of William James, suggested the principle of the exclusion of the transcendent as necessary for a genuine psychology of religion. He argued psychologists are not in a position to affirm or reject the independent existence of a religious object and should confine themselves to observation and understanding. The Gifford Lectures of 1901-1902 resulted in the premier psychology of religion at the time, William James The Varieties of Religious Experience. James assumed the same stance toward the religious object as Flournoy, and so have many others since. In psychoanalytic circles, Rizzutos Birth of the Living God (1979) has already become classic. She explains her position:This book is exclusively a clinical, psychoanalytical study of postulated superhuman beings as experienced by those who do and do not believe in them Questions about the actual existence of God do not pertain here. My method enables me to deal only with psychic experiences. Those among my patients who believe are unshakeable in their conviction that God is a very live person. To understand them I must accept that belief as a reality to them. (1979, pp. 3-4) More recent psychoanalytic treatments of religion, notably those of Jones (1991) and Rubin (1996; 1997) have called for a mutually (if not reciprocal) influencing relationship. Psychoanalysis is challenged by religion to examine its own idolatries, values, self-care ethic, and pathologizing tendencies. Religion is challenged to examine its uncritical self-idealization and the ways in which its practices and beliefs may promote or sustain psychopathology. Wulff calls for the principle of inclusion of the transcendent to give transcendence the prominence it deserves without reifying it or identifying it with any one tradition or set of symbols (1997, p. 645). Self psychology represents an example of a moderate position in its interpretation of religion, and suggests in contrast to the previous positions, that religious experience, belief and practice may be understood as an expression of the state of the self and its particular life-long needs for a sense of being special, a need for the experience of alikeness, and a need for affiliation with the admired. These selfobject needs for mirroring, twinship, and idealization may all be operative in mystical experiences and in experiences of the divine, as well as in adherence to particular religious beliefs and practices. Self Psychology with its developmental trajectories for each selfobject need, recognizes that the mere presence of religion does not automatically convey the meaning, function, or derivation of the experience within the personality. Clinicians countertransference or confusion about how to deal with the material, often results in religion being pathologized or ignored. Her ein lies the relevance of Meissners (1984) observation that many religious people are very anxious about exploring the unconscious dimensions of their faith, lest it be psychologized away, and the relevance of Kohuts observation that the insights of the psychology of the self enable us to shed our intolerant attitude toward religion . . . (1978). This chapter will explore certain aspects of mystical experience as an expression of the idealizing selfobject need. Kohuts developmental continuum of idealization will be reviewed with attention to optimal developmental experience and to expressions of pathological (or archaic) forms of idealization. The cases of Mr. X and Mr. U in Restoration (1977) and the implications of the idealizing selfobject need for a psychology of mystical/religious/spiritual experience are considered. The chapter concludes with the clinical vignette of Mr. S, the mystical experience he reported in light of the selfobject needs expressed inside and outside the treatment, and a series of questions for. The Idealizing Selfobject Need and Its Relation to Religious Experience In discussing the selfobject functions of religion, Kohut gave more attention to idealization than to mirroring or twinship. In some ways, idealization has the most obvious link to religion with its fundamental desire to merge with or affiliate oneself with the calming perfection and omnipotence of the selfobject. The object of mystical experience is often described with reference to power and perfection. The need or motivation for idealizing selfobject experience derives from the childs experience of the loss of his or her original sense of narcissistic perfection. The idealizing need reflects one strategy to the problem of recovering a sense of perfection. The self attempts to merge or affiliate with the perfect other sharing in the others perfection, thereby protecting oneself from an empty and depleted sense of a defective self. A more technical definition is offered in Analysis of the Self (1971):It is the state in which, after being exposed to the disturbance of the psycho logical equilibrium of primary narcissism, the psyche saves a part of the lost experience of global narcissistic perfection by assigning it to an archaic, rudimentary (transitional) self-object, the idealized parental imago. (p. 37) The idealizing experience and related inevitable disappointments in life (optimal frustrations) result in the internalization of basic values and ideals. In addition, the earliest merger experiences provide the foundation for development of the capacity to calm and soothe oneself, to manage anxiety without undue difficulty, to regulate inner tension. Eating disorders, substance abuse, compulsive sexual activity, and perhaps delinquent behavior are all evidence, at least in part, of a deficit in the capacity to soothe oneself, and by inference, of an early disturbance in the experience of the idealized selfobject. The Developmental Continuum of the Idealizing Need The earliest point on the developmental trajectory of the idealizing selfobject need is experienced by the infant as a merger with the stable, calm, non-anxious, powerful, wise, protective selfobject that possesses the qualities the self lacks (Wolf, 1988, p. 55). Kohut (1971) described the experience of the child feeling bereft and insignificant without constant union with the selfobject who possesses these idealized qualities. Development progresses toward being able to recognize details of the environment more clearly; and beyond being able to love and hate (Kohut, 1971, p.38). The later, or more mature end of the continuum is illustrated by the capacity to be sustained by and to feel secure in the empathic resonance (rather than merger) with the idealized selfobject. The calming functions and ideals of the selfobject have been internalized and assimilated, becoming psychological structures within the self. Imperfections are observed in (reality) without resorting to splittin g defenses in which everything is either all good or all bad. The self learns to recognize and accept that the ideal is not ideal (Kohut in Elson, 1987, p. 81). Merger with the idealized selfobject and the requirement of perfection in the other gradually give way to a clearer and more realistic sense of the surround. This occurs through a process of de-idealization and transmuting internalization in which the child experiences incremental disappointments in an empathic environment and becomes increasingly realistic about the idealized parent imago. Kohut suggested, for example, that the experience of a childs undetected lie by the parents introduces the fact that the parents are not omniscient. Kohut also speculated that a maturational readiness to perform the function, as well as some withdrawal of the function by the selfobject would enhance the more mature development of the idealizing need (Kohut in Elson, 1987, p.98). To summarize, the developmental trajectory of the idealized selfobject experience begins in a merger with the perfect other in an effort to manage tension regulation and feelings of insignificance and imperfection. In the oedipal phase, acceptance of the childs idealizing needs plays a crucial role in superego formation and in the formation of gender identity. In adolescence and young adulthood, more advanced cognitive development permits the recognition of parental shortcomings. Often, idealization needs are directed to the peer group and popular culture until the adolescent and young adult have internalized his or her own set of ideals, values, and goals. Wolf noted the adolescents own values consist of partly parental, partly cultural, and partly a critique of both (1988, p. 58). In old age, there is a need to idealize community and to be confirmed as an especially valuable guide and model for the communitys ideals (Wolf, 1988, p. 60). Effects of Developmentally Inadequate Idealization Experience Generally speaking, insufficient empathy for the childs idealizing needs results in the continuation of archaic expressions of idealization into adulthood. Insufficient empathy may be characterized by a rejection of the childs idealizations, or by sudden loss of or extensive disappointment in the idealized selfobject, such as may occur in situations of divorce, substance abuse, domestic violence, or death. Wolf described the ideal-hungry personality as being able to experience him or herself worthwhile only by finding selfobjects to whom they can look up and by whom they can feel accepted (Wolf, 1988, p. 73). It is worth noting here that Ullman (1989) observed many converts were struggling with feelings of unworthiness and low-self-esteem prior to their religious or spiritual experiences. Excessive frustration in infancy and early childhood may result in difficulty sleeping (self-soothing) and difficulty managing anxiety. Traumatic disappointment up to and through the oedipal phase seriously interferes with the capacity to assume functions related to positive idealizing experiences (i.e., structuralization) and may result in a kind of developmental fixation, a renewed insistence on, and search for, an external object of perfection (Kohut, 1971, p. 44). There can be gross identification with the lost parent rather than an internalizing of structure (identification as a counter to the experience of mourning, Freud, 1917 E). In Restoration of the Self (1977), Kohut discussed the case of Mr. U in which there was significant failed maternal empathy and the development of a fetish. An attempt to idealize the father followed. The idealizing function the mother might have allowed Mr. U, as an infant, was a merger with her strength and calmness, thus assisting him to develop a capacity for self-soothing. Instead he resorted to stroking his own skin and the soft selfobject surrogates of his fetish. The turn to the father at this juncture is considered a secondary idealization. The father rejected Mr. Us attempts to use him as an idealized parent imago and therefore Mr. U had no opportunity to obtain self-soothing structures through this potential merger, nor any opportunity to incrementally experience de-idealizations allowing integration of the selfobjects shortcomings. This resulted in two opposite responses to the disappointment: 1) Mr. U became despairing and hopeless about an unreachable ideal, and 2 ) the ideal was regarded as worthless; he became superior to it (Kohut, 1977, pp. 56-57). The archaic grandiose self was reactivated in response to the injury of being rebuffed by the idealized parent imago. Kohuts further notation has relevance for understanding the function of religious experience. Mr. U created,. . . a psychological situation of merger with a nonhuman selfobject that he totally controlled, and thereby deprived himself of the opportunity to experience the structure-building optimal failures of a human selfobject. (1977, p.56) In a similar vein, Kohut (1984) revisited this notion of creating substitute selfobjects through visual imagery when there seemed to be no plausible selfobjects in ones environment. Specifically, he suggested a self psychology refinement of the concept of regression-in-service-of-the-ego and spoke of a positive evaluation of the capacity to conjure up the presence of individuals [in order] to carry out acts of supreme courage (Kohut, 1984, p. 76). He had in mind martyred resisters to the Nazis. In noting the selfobject transference in the treatment situation as a new edition of the relation between the self and selfobject in early life, Kohut reported several cases with religious preoccupations. In one case he was treating (during the early stages of his self psychology theory development), Kohut consistently refused the patients idealization. She became deeply religious and continued the unresolved idealizing transference in an intense religious experience (Kohut in Elson, 1987, p. 77). Regarding his work with a young man whose idealized father died when he was nine years old, and who expressed interest in the figures of Gandhi, Jesus, and Martin Luther King, Kohut concluded, There is a shift from the attempt to regain a lost personified strong ideal to a religious-like drifting attitude toward the world (Kohut in Elson, 1987, p. 286). It was Kohuts experience that when a treatment ended with an incompletely analyzed idealizing transference, the patient often became preoccupied with religion or broad religious attitudes. Kohut explicitly said he was not adverse to religion, but that in some patients he felt the religious interest was psychologically obligatory and not freely chosen. In one case, the religious interest was maintained all the time against reality resulting in a pollyannaish attitude that everyone was good, an attitude that mitigated against a more needed realism in the patients job and his hiring practices (Kohut in Elson, 1987, p. 287). In Restoration (1977), the case of Mr. X illustrates again the pathological implications of an inadequate idealized parent imago. He presented himself to Kohut with an interest in joining the Peace Corps and with a Christ-identification, both of which Kohut came to regard as the carriers of an archaic grandiose self. One aspect of his difficulties had been the mothers interference with Mr. Xs idealization of his father. The structural defects that resulted were dealt with by concretized erotic enactments. For example, Mr. X. would feel suffused with idealized masculine strength when he imagined himself crossing his penis with the penis of the priest as he was receiving the Host. Kohut understood it necessary to shift Mr. X from an addictive erotic representation to a reactivation in the transference of Mr. Xs relation to his father, the idealized selfobject. This required shedding the Christ-identification his mother had fostered in her Bible reading to him and simultaneously di sengaging the father-surrogate, God, which had represented his mothers unconscious imago of her own father (1977, p. 218). While Kohut theorized the possibility that participating in religion or spirituality could meet appropriate selfobject needs, it is clear that he also viewed involvement in things religious as potentially serving pathological or defensive functions within the personality. Implications for Religious Belief and Experience The developmental fate of the idealized parent imago, whether mature or archaically vulnerable to narcissistic injury, may find expression in some form of spirituality. Whether in particular theological beliefs or in varieties of religious experience, the need to affiliate with perfection can often be observed in both the characterizations of the divine as well as in the emotional longings which precede many conversion experiences. Ullman (1989) interviewed converts to Catholicism, Judaism, Hinduism, and the Bahai faith and concluded that the religious realities of these converts consisted primarily of the promise of unconditional love and protection by a figure perceived as infallible, rather than in an ideological search for the truth (p. 191). Kohut introduced the consideration of mystical experience and nature religion in his discussion of archaic idealizing needs and the concept of fuzzy idealism. He noted two expressions of fuzzy idealism in religious experience. The first related to what he called vague religious preoccupations which lacked focus upon a clearly delimited admired figure (1971, p. 85). As noted above, idealizing transferences deflected by the therapist that remain unengaged in the treatment sometimes resulted in the patients turn to religion or spirituality. The predisposition for such a turn related to early developmental disruptions in the idealized selfobject experience. Secondly, the early loss of or traumatic disappointment in an idealized figure sometimes resulted later in an interest in nature religion or philosophy (e.g., Thoreaus work). The appeal of these experiences is the absence of a human being experienced as selfobject who may disappoint again. The fuzziness of these idealizations p rotects the believer from a certain form of narcissistic injury while at the same time providing a needed experience of idealization. Kohut also observed the not infrequent presence of a tendency to mystical merger experiences in archaic expressions of the idealizing selfobject need. The dynamic of merger was the key focus for Kohut and suggested to him a response to earlier developmental expressions of this selfobject need. It is significant to note that he discussed both healthy and pathological forms of merger. Healthy merger must be initiated from the mature aspect of the personality, should not be the only automatic response to stress, should be controlled and controllable, should be a choice, and should be capable of tolerating delay (Kohut in Elson, 1987). In contrast, pathological merger experiences in adulthood are a response to the inadequately fulfilled, phase appropriate merger needs of childhood. Kohut noted that in actual behavior, though there is a longing for an intense archaic merger experience, the more typical protective response is a strict avoidance of circumstances and experiences that mi ght provoke a feared regression and a loss of control. In psychology of religion studies, there is basic agreement as to the major characteristics of mystical experience regardless of era or tradition (James, 1902; Underhill, 1911; Leuba, 1925; Otto, 1923; Stace, 1961; Hood, 1975, 1977, 1978; Ellwood 1999). James concluded The Varieties with an observation about mysticism: personal religious experience has its root and centre in mystical states of consciousness (p.292). He had suggested four marks that justify the name of mystical: 1) ineffability the experience is difficult to articulate (p. 292); 2) noetic quality new states and depths of insight which are ususally authoritative for the individual (p. 293); 3) transiency the experience lasts no more than one-two hours; 4) passivity . . . the mystic feels as if his [or her] own will were in abeyance, and indeed sometimes as if he [or she] were grasped and held by a superior power. (p. 293) An additional characteristic discussed is union. This overcoming of all the usual barriers between the individual and the Absolute is the great mystic achievement. In mystic states we both become one with the Absolute and we become aware of our oneness (1902, p. 321). Following a review of the literature, Ellwood concluded, . . . what the pattern finally says is simply that there is a direction toward union in the serious spiritual life. While common motifs may appear, no two advances toward union are the same (1999, p. 175). A few brief quotations illustrate this characteristic longing for union. From Catherine of Sienna, a thirteenth century mystic: My me is God (in Flinders, 1993). From Dorothy Day, founder of the Catholic Worker Movement, about her conversion to Roman Catholicism: . . . but I wanted to be poor, chaste, and obedient. I wanted to die in order to live, to put off the old man and put on the Christ. I loved, in other words, and like all women in love, I wanted to be united to my love (1952/1981, p. 149). Thomas Merton, a 20th century priest and theologian, wrote poignantly of the longing to close the distance he felt between himself and God: My God it is the gap and the distance that kills me. That is the only reason why I desire solitude to be lost to all created things, to die to them and the knowledge of them . . . For I knew it was only by leaving them that I could come to you (1948, p. 461).The experience of union or merger in mystical experience is a controversial topic in r eligious and psychological circles. Merton (1966) suggested regressive features in mystical experience are not uncommon and are even necessary to attain the earlier stages of the experience, but that deeper experiences should be beyond regressive elements. Though Mertons attitude seems open, the rejection of regressive elements in deeper, presumably more mature kinds of mystical experience suggests an equating of regression with pathology. Traditional psychoanalysis has regarded mystical experience as a regression to the narcissistic state of the infant. However, as noted earlier, Kohut recognized the narcissistic dimensions of religious experience, allowing for both archaic and mature transformations of narcissism. Self psychology brings a more complex psychological understanding to these phenomena. It appreciates how the seeking of union or merger may manifest as a psychologically regressive phenomenon, but may be in the service of the ego in utilizing religious experience to realize the nuclear program of ambitions and the actualization of certain ideals (e.g., Gandhi or Day). Or, in mystical experiences, the merger may assuage the narcissistic vulnerability of possible re-traumatization with idealizing selfobjects. As Ullman noted (1989), merger with God protects from the demands of other relationships at greater risk for disappointment and thus the possibility of increased awareness of ones imperfections. Clinical Vignette In the clinical setting it is sometimes difficult to clearly separate specific selfobject needs from one another, and in this case there are significant mirroring needs as well as the idealizing focus of this chapter. Mr. S was a single, 28 yr. old graduate student, who sought psychotherapy for a long-standing problems with anxiety. In the second hour, he reported a life-changing event that he regarded as a mystical experience. I saw him intensively for one and a half years until an external situation necessitated a move out of state. He traced the beginning of his anxiety back to seventh grade when he began wondering about the nature of the universe. Was it predominantly benevolent or not? What was real? How did he know that this life was not just a part of a dream God might be having? What was the meaning of life?. He suffered much internal anguish and in the face of being unable to resolve these questions, put them aside. In the tenth grade, Mr. S experienced another expression of anxiety in the form of an obsession about his own mortality (the father was also afraid of death and hyper-vigilant about safety and contagion). At age 22, Mr. S suffered the most intense and nearly debilitating outbreak of anxiety yet, related to beginning a practicuum following college. He was aware of panic about doing a good job. The intensity of these attacks gradually abated, though he continued to experience a fairly consistent internal sense of dis-ease and anxiety that eluded his understanding. Family History Mr. S was the youngest child in his family and throughout the therapy, Mr. S said relatively little about his siblings or his parents. Mother died several years previous to the treatment after a protracted illness that began while Mr. S was in high school. The anxiety attacks had begun shortly after she left the family home requiring institutional care. Mothers illness and death were understood as connected in a significant way to Mr. Ss feelings that he should be doing something important with his life, perhaps as a way of redeeming her suffering. He thought this feeling had motivated him earlier to pursue leadership positions and to initiate charitable activities. Mr. S reported some fairly nominal involvement in mainstream Protestantism during his childhood. He recalled that in fourth grad, he was interested in god and the Devil for three or four months, and then had little or no interest in religion for another ten years. He was confirmed in eighth grade, but said it had meant nothing to him. He described himself as an agnostic who wanted to believe, but experienced himself in his early twenties as being frightened about closing his eyes to pray. He made a few efforts to attend retreat weekends and to do some reading in psychology and religion, but found these too emotionally taxing, at least until he had a life-changing conversion experience. The Religious Experience In the second session and with a great deal of hesitance about my response, Mr. S related a very significant experience, the details of which were more fully disclosed over the following months. He had been out with his girlfriend and was driving them back to her house. They had not been getting along very well and were in the midst of an argument when she turned to him and said, You are so self-centered. Before Mr. S could respond, he felt something coming into him and had to pull the car over because he could not concentrate on driving. He felt pervaded with an unconditional love that he had never before experienced, a sort of cosmic orgasm. He experience adoration for the Godhead and a presence within him. Mr. S felt that God had communicated with him and, in effect, had reassured him about the benevolent nature of the universe. There was nothing for him to fear. He described a vague visual element toward the end of this experience that seemed to be something like a slowl y swirling galaxy. The most intense part of the experience lasted about an hour. Mr. S was left convinced of the reality of God and that his life pursuit should be related in some way to disseminating the truth he had learned. This experience was a critical turning point for Mr. S. Subsequently, he felt a greater tolerance for his anxiety and felt that it had diminished. An earlier sense of needing to do something important with his life in a public arena was reinforced, as well as, confirming a sense of being special. More specifically, Mr. S seemed to identify himself with figures like Martin Luther and Abraham Lincoln in that perhaps like them, his internal suffering was a necessary preparation in order to do great things. Discussion Mr. Ss reactions to the therapeutic relationship seemed to follow Kohuts description of how persons with narcissistic personality disorders respond to empathic breaks, that is, instead of relying on the empathic connection with the therapist, there is a return to archaic selfobject relations. Following a feeling of greater attunement from the therapist, Mr. S would often come to the next session feeling disgruntled about therapy and feeling he expected answers from the therapist which only he could find. Only God could really understand him and I regarded this as regression to an archaic merger. Mr. Ss experiences of anxiety, the function of his religious experience, the confusion he felt about his ambition and his experience of grandiosity are difficulties illustrative of the various disturbances of a narcissistic personality disorder. He demonstrated aspects of a mirroring transference within the therapy (as evidenced by his soliciting my admiration, his vulnerability to mis-attunements, and his identifications with historically great figures). Also present was an extra-therapeutic dimension of an idealizing transference to certain male figures and to his experience of the divine. There were disturbances in at least two sectors of the self, the grandiose-exhibitionistic self and the idealized parental imago. The extent of Mr. Ss anxiety lead to the conclusion that there was a defect in the structure of the self, specifically, a deficiency in the calming structures which serve the self-soothing function of the idealized pole of the self. Kohut (1984) suggested that suc h a defect derived from either a congenital propensity to experience excessive anxiety and/or failure of empathic responses from selfobjects early in life. It can be inferred that Mr. S did indeed experience a failure of idealized maternal and paternal selfobject omnipotent calming, resulting in an adequate capacity for self-soothing. Though his anxieties had manifested in a number of ways, fundamentally it seemed that a disintegration anxiety had been stimulated early in life, a fear of destruction of the self based upon the unavailability of empathic selfobjects. This was related to mothers illness and death, and the loss of selfobject functions that she may have provided and the reactive feelings of being destined to do something great that immediately preceded her death. The emergence of archaic grandiosity could be understood as a defense against the impending loss, against the helplessness he felt as he watched his mothers condition deteriorate, against the demise of the preconscious wish in his dreams to rescue her in order to restore himself, and a retreat from the disappointment in his fathers inability to save the mother. Mr. S felt he needed to be God for himself. A vertical split was observed in his conscious fear of becoming a hamburger-flipping misfit in contrast to his feelings of being destined for great things. Healing these splits then became the underpinning for further psychological development. Mr. Ss experience contained classic mystical characteristics in the difficulty of articulating the experience; the new insight of a truth; transiency (the experience lasted about an hour); and passivity the experience came upon him. The experience may have served, initially, as a defense against a narcissistic injury and the potential fragmentation Mr. S experienced when his girlfriend made the observation of his self-centeredness. The exposure of his archaic grandiosity may have been threatened. The experience also functioned as a merger with a transcendently experienced, omnipotent and calm, idealized selfobject. This experience, and the return to it through less intense experiences of prayer and meditation for relief from anxiety, contained a schizoid quality in its avoidance of human intimacy. It may also have served as a creative adaptation through which Mr. S discovered a new selfobject and attempted to remobilize arrested development in the idealized sectors of his perso nality. The religious dimension of Mr. Ss life was not without its conflicts that expressed disturbances in the spheres of ambition and ideals. Mr. S reported having a great deal of resistance to praying and wondered why, since, There was no other feeling like it. During prayer, Mr. S observed that he had to become aware of himself as human, with difficulties and anxieties; that God was God, and he was not. On the other hand, it was during these times when Mr. S felt best about himself, when he was most real about himself. He felt okay, happy, joyful, and calm with an increased sense of self-esteem. Conclusion This chapter reviewed Kohuts concept of the idealizing selfobject need, its definitions and functions, and its developmental trajectories. The need to affiliate with perfection as a solution to the loss of ones own sense of perfection is especially relevant to a psychological understanding of mystical experience. Certain forms of mysticism function as a form of fuzzy idealism in which disappointment in the experience of human selfobjects is avoided by appealing to a vague sense of perfection. Union or merger dimensions were recognized as an aspect of mysticism, but one that does not automatically assume pathological meaning. The clinical vignette of Mr. S considered the adaptive functions of his religious experience in the consequent lessening of anxiety in his life, as well as how the experience served a protective function against the exposure of archaic grandiosity. A number of questions arise from these explorations. Does a developmental view necessarily have to imply that a merger experience is regressive in a pathological way? Postmodern perspectives challenge these linear models and the maturity morality implicit in them. Can psychological structure be accrued through experiences with a sacred other? Based on perception of the divine as empathic, are experiences of transmuting internalization possible (e.g., unanswered prayer as an optimal frustration)? Might God be viewed as a substitute selfobject created out of the absence of suitable selfobjects in ones environment (see Bacals notion of a fantasy self-object and A. Ornsteins concept of the curative fantasy)? How can the experience of self-transcendence from a self psychology perspective be understood? Are there reciprocal dimensions of influence between the spiritual experience and the therapeutic experience? How does the work in the transference affect ones spiritual experience and how might a spiritual experience affect the working through of a transference? What gender differences may be present in these experiences? Self psychology provides a helpful theoretical framework not only for a psychology of religion, but also for assisting the therapist/analyst in the clinical situation by suggesting a way to understand connections between selfobject needs, the transference, its genetic origins and developmental fate, and the relation of all this to the nature of a patients spiritual experience. Kohuts approach undeniably includes an empathic and therapeutic understanding of things spiritual and offers a deeper grasp of the role and function of this aspect of human experience. Unwittingly, he is very much in concert with that most famous psychologist of religion, William James who a century ago suggested that, To the medical mind these ecstasies signify nothing but suggested and imitated hypnoid states, on an intellectual basis of superstition, and a corporal one of degeneration and hysteria. Undoubtedly these pathological conditions have existed in many and possibly in all cases, but that tells us nothing about the value for knowledge of the consciousness which they induce. To pass a spiritual judgement upon these states, we must not content ourselves with superficial medical talk, but inquire into their fruits. (1902, p. 317) REFERENCES Armstrong, K. 1993. A history of God: the 4000 year quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Day, D. 1952. The long loneliness: An autobiography. San Francisco: Harper and Row, Publishers (1982). Delacroix, H. 1908. Etudes dhistoire et de psychologie du mysticisme. Les Grand mystiques chretiens. Paris: Felix Alcan. Ellwood, R. S. 1999. Mysticism and religion. Second edition. New York: Seven Bridges Press. Flinders, C.L. 1993. Enduring grace: Living portraits of seven women mystics. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. Flournoy, T. 1903a. Les principesde la psychologie religieuse. 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